The text commonly known as the Book of the Dead is not a single book but a collection of ancient Egyptian funerary texts known by its original title: Ru nu peret em hru, which translates to "Spells for Going Forth by Day." Composed by priests, the earliest versions of these spells date back to the New Kingdom period, specifically beginning around 1550 BC (mid-16th century BC), though much of its content originates from the earlier Pyramid Texts (Old Kingdom, c. 2686–2181 BC) and Coffin Texts (Middle Kingdom, c. 2055–1650 BC). Its use continued and was modified significantly until the Ptolemaic and Roman periods (into the 1st century BC). The structure found in the most famous versions, like the Papyrus of Ani, stabilized during the Saite Period (26th Dynasty, c. 664–525 BC).
The Purpose and the Journey of the Soul
The Book of the Dead provided the deceased with the necessary spells, prayers, and magical formulas believed to protect them, grant them knowledge, and ensure their safe passage to the eternal afterlife. The Egyptian concept of the soul was multifaceted. After death, the spirit separated into key components:
The Ba: The mobile aspect of the soul, often depicted as a human-headed bird, which was able to leave the tomb and travel.
The Ka: The life-force or spiritual double that remained in the tomb, requiring sustenance and offerings.
According to Egyptian belief, a portion of the soul undertook a long and perilous journey through the Duat, the underworld or Kingdom of the Dead.
Structure and Content
The spells vary in number and order, but a typical structure can be broadly divided into four sections:
1–16: Entrance to the Tomb and Ascent. These spells focus on the transformation of the deceased and the separation of the Ba from the body. They describe the entry into the tomb, the descent to the Duat, and the deceased's ability to "go forth" from the tomb.
17–63: Regeneration and Control over the Underworld. This part contains spells that grant the deceased mastery over the various forces, places, and deities encountered in the Duat. These are essentially knowledge spells, proving the dead person's understanding of cosmic order.
64–129: Journey with the Sun God and Judgment. This pivotal section describes the soul’s ultimate test. Spells help the deceased journey across the sky in the Solar Barque of Ra, ensuring protection against forces of chaos like the serpent god Apophis. This journey culminates in the central event of the afterlife: the Weighing of the Heart.
130–189: Deification and Access to the Afterlife. The final spells are concerned with the deceased's successful admission into the blessed afterlife (Aaru or the Field of Reeds) and their deification—becoming one with the gods (often Osiris or Ra). This section includes instructions for proper burial rites and the use of protective amulets.
The Psychostasia: Weighing of the Heart
The most crucial moment in the Duat was the "Psychostasia," meaning "weighing of souls" in Greek (the Egyptian term is the Judgment Hall of Osiris).
The Ceremony: The deceased's heart (believed to be the seat of intelligence, memory, and morality) was placed on one pan of a balance scale by the god Anubis.
The Standard: The counterweight on the other pan was the Feather of Ma'at, symbolizing truth, justice, harmony, and cosmic order.
The Outcome: The god Thoth recorded the results.
If the heart was found to be light (equal to the feather), it meant the deceased had lived a righteous life. The soul was then granted passage into the eternal paradise of the Field of Reeds (Aaru).
If the heart was heavy, burdened by sin, it was immediately devoured by the terrifying composite monster, Ammit ("The Devourer"), a creature part-crocodile, part-lion, and part-hippopotamus. This resulted in the soul's second death and utter non-existence.
The Book of the Dead included a vital text known as the Negative Confession (Spell 125). This was a list of sins the deceased claimed not to have committed (e.g., "I have not stolen," "I have not murdered"), which was essentially a script for the soul to recite to the 42 divine judges to prove its purity before the final weighing.
A handwritten copy of the spells, often on a papyrus scroll, was indeed ritually placed with the mummy inside the sarcophagus or tomb, acting as a literal guidebook and protective insurance policy for the journey ahead.
