The fundamental eating habits of the Ancient Egyptians remained remarkably stable over their three millennia of history. Reflecting a typical Mediterranean pattern, the diet was overwhelmingly based on staple carbohydrates and vegetables, with the regular consumption of beer and occasional meat.
Staples: Bread and Beer
The foundation of the Egyptian diet was bread, which was usually made from emmer wheat (Triticum dicoccum). Egyptians developed a variety of techniques for preparing bread at home, with methods evolving from simple cooking on hot stones to the use of sophisticated clay ovens over time. The bread was often coarse and contained residual sand or ground stone from the milling process, which contributed to widespread dental wear and decay.
Barley was also cultivated, though it was primarily used to create beer, the other ubiquitous element of the Egyptian diet. This beer was thick, murky, and nutrient-rich, serving as a significant source of calories and protein, and was consumed by people of all ages and social classes. Unlike modern beer, it was often sweetened with dates or flavored with herbs.
Meat, Fish, and Protein
Meat and fish were relatively expensive, and their availability was heavily dependent on social class and geography.
Fish from the Nile River was a vital protein source, especially for the lower classes near the river. It was often dried, salted, or smoked for preservation.
Meat (including beef, goat, mutton, and poultry) was generally reserved for feasts, religious offerings, and the elite. Cattle were often too valuable as draft animals or sources of milk to be slaughtered frequently.
Poultry was more common, with ducks, geese, and pigeons being bred and eaten regularly. Hunting provided game like gazelle or hippopotamus, though this was primarily a sport of the nobility.
Meat was prepared using various techniques, including stewing, grilling, frying, and roasting. In wealthy households, these dishes were often enhanced with spices and herbs.
Vegetables, Fruits, and Sweets
The fertile Nile Delta ensured a steady supply of produce:
Vegetables were a dietary mainstay. The most consumed included onions and garlic (valued for both flavor and perceived medicinal properties), as well as cucumbers, leeks, lettuce, and various tubers. Even the papyrus plant could be consumed, with its core being baked or boiled.
Fruits were common. The most prevalent were dates, but figs and grapes were also widely grown, with grapes being used to produce wine (primarily for the elite). Nuts like the doum palm fruit were also a common feature.
Sweets relied heavily on natural sweeteners. Honey was highly prized and expensive, mostly reserved for medicinal purposes or wealthy tables. Dates and carob served as cheaper, readily available alternatives. The hieroglyph for "carob" eventually broadened its meaning to indicate any sweet food.
In essence, the diet was energy-rich and plant-based, sustained by the reliable harvests enabled by the annual Nile inundation.
